The relationship between problematic internet use and psychological distress in older Chinese teachers (40+) during different stages of the COVID-19 pandemic: three cross-sectional studies

The rapid proliferation of the internet, computers, smartphones, and electronic devices over recent decades has led to an increased risk of problematic internet use (PIU), a public health concern recognized across many countries by the World Health Organization (1). The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated this issue due to the necessity of prolonged physical isolation (2). To compensate for the lack of face-to-face social interactions, and the psychological needs unmet in their real lives, individuals increasingly rely on the internet (3–5), thereby heightening the risk of PIU (6). Numerous studies have investigated excessive internet use among adolescent students during the pandemic, revealing a worsening trend of PIU within this demographic (7–9).

PIU, an umbrella term replacing earlier terms such as internet addiction (10), internet dependence (11), and compulsive internet use (12), refers to a maladaptive pattern of internet use characterized by loss of control, negative consequences, and compulsive thoughts about internet access (13, 14). Current research on PIU includes the following two primary aspects: Firstly, studies have documented the prevalence of PIU across diverse populations as seen in Guo et al., Zhao et al., and Mohler-Kuo et al. (15–17). However, these studies have shown inconsistent results, according to Burkauskas et al. (18). This inconsistency in prevalence rates across studies complicates the understanding of PIU’s scope and impact.

Secondly, the relationship between PIU and other factors, particularly mental health, has received significant attention from researchers (19–21), with a general consensus on the negative correlation between PIU and individual mental health. Research indicates that PIU is associated with emotional disorders (22–24) and is positively correlated with stress, anxiety, and depression among university students (25–28), as well as loneliness (29, 30), low self-esteem (31, 32), and stigmatization (33). Devine et al. (34) have underscored the critical need to gather evidence of PIU from diverse individuals to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the issue. These findings highlight the importance of further research to understand the nuances of PIU and its impact on mental health across different demographic groups.

More specifically, the issue of PIU during the COVID-19 pandemic was suspected to be exacerbated due to the increased time spent online (3, 5, 18). The existing literature on PIU during the pandemic reveals several notable gaps that warrant further investigation. First, the prevalence estimates of PIU during the pandemic are highly inconsistent across studies (18). For example, Zhao et al. (16) conducted a cross-sectional study among 11,254 Chinese university students and found a PIU prevalence rate of 28.4%. In contrast, two Hungarian studies (35, 36) reported PIU prevalence rates of 3.9% (485 hospital staff members) and 5.2% (1,817 high school teachers). A Swiss study by Mohler-Kuo et al. (17) which included 1,146 children and adolescents and 1,627 young adults, estimated the PIU prevalence rate to be 30.1% for children and adolescents and 21.3% for young adults. Given this inconsistency in PIU prevalence rates, it is essential to conduct more research to better understand this issue.

Second, the majority of research on PIU has been concentrated on younger demographics, such as adolescents and university students (21, 22, 25, 26), leaving a gap in the research on PIU among older adults (40+ years) (37). This raises particular concerns regarding the increasing longevity and growing proportion of adults in the population (38). Empirical studies have not only identified the presence of PIU within this demographic (34, 38, 39), but also highlighted its potential to increase health risks, including greater social isolation, depression, and increased suicide rates (37, 39). Given the importance of improving the quality of life for older adults for familial wellbeing and social stability, especially in the context of an aging population (40, 41), it is imperative to examine the prevalence, causes, and consequences of PIU among older adults, with a particular focus on older teachers within the education system, who play a significant role and are interconnected with the student population.

Within the education system, teachers play a crucial role and have been identified as a group that experiences significant stress (42–44), especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic led to the global closure of schools (45), significantly impacting the education sector and the teacher community (46). Teachers were confronted with the mandatory shift to online teaching (47) and faced technical and logistical challenges as they transitioned from classroom to home-based instruction (48), along with increased workloads and diminished communication with students and parents (49). Consequently, the literature has shown that COVID-19 has inflicted considerable psychological distress and excessive internet use on teachers (50, 51). Some studies explored the impact of teachers’ PIU on their mental health (44, 52, 53).

Addressing the prevalence and impact of PIU among teachers is essential, as their psychological wellbeing greatly affects teaching effectiveness (54). Previous research has shown that teachers’ mental health is closely related to student behavior, potentially leading to worse academic achievement and reduced student motivation (55, 56). While these studies have shed light on the impact of teachers’ PIU on their mental health, a significant gap remains in the literature, as there has been no specific focus on older teachers. This oversight is a critical area for future research, as understanding the challenges faced by older teachers can inform targeted interventions and support strategies to promote healthy internet use and overall wellbeing.

Third, most current studies report the prevalence of PIU among participants using a single cross-sectional design. While this approach captures the relationship between PIU and individual psychological distress at a specific moment, it falls short of providing a comprehensive analysis. A more robust methodology would be to employ multiple cross-sectional studies (called repeated cross-sectional studies) conducted over time, which would offer a dynamic view of how PIU prevalence has fluctuated among target groups and how it has interacted with psychological distress throughout different phases of the COVID-19 pandemic.

In a prior study, Soriano et al. utilized a repeated cross-sectional survey to study the prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in Spain using two different samples at two distinct points in time: 1997 and 2007 (57). Similarly, to ascertain the prevalence of PIU among older school teachers during the 3 years of the COVID-19 pandemic, we conducted a repeated cross-sectional survey at three different periods. This methodology allows researchers to gain a deeper understanding of how the population engaging in PIU has changed over time and the association between PIU and mental health outcomes as the pandemic progressed and societal circumstances changed.

To address these gaps, this study focuses on older teachers in China, conducting three cross-sectional studies to evaluate their prevalence of PIU across 3 years of the COVID-19 pandemic (2020, 2021, and 2022) and examining the impact of PIU on psychological distress. The first study, set in the immediate aftermath of the pandemic outbreak (August to November, 2020), explores the influence of pandemic fear on PIU and psychological distress among older teachers. This study aims to understand how the initial shock and uncertainty of the pandemic affected teachers’ problematic online behaviors and mental wellbeing. The second study, conducted during the mid-pandemic period of online teaching in schools (November, 2021), investigates the impact of PIU on teachers’ psychological need thwarting (PNT) related to online teaching and distress. This study examines how the shift to remote education and the increased reliance on technology may have exacerbated PIU and its negative consequences for teachers’ psychological needs and wellbeing. The third study, carried out during the late-pandemic transition back to offline teaching (January, 2022), examines the effects of PIU on occupational burnout and psychological distress among older teachers. This study aims to understand how the lingering effects of PIU, developed during the pandemic, may continue to impact teachers’ professional and mental health as they readjust to in-person teaching.

In this study, we employ problematic smartphone use (PSU) as an indicator of PIU among older teachers. This decision is based on the widespread use of smartphones in China, with 99.9% of Chinese internet users accessing the internet via mobile phones, and older individuals (aged 40 and above) accounting for a significant 48.5% of this population. Moreover, there is a significant overlap between PSU and PIU (58), and a growing body of research demonstrates the close relationship between PSU and mental health (59, 60).

By conducting these three sub-studies, this research provides a comprehensive analysis of PIU and its effects on older teachers’ psychological distress throughout the different stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. The following sections will detail the research hypotheses for each sub-study.

Three conceptual models were tested in three distinct studies, and their respective hypotheses are depicted in Figures 1–3.

Our three-year investigation in China, comprising three distinct cross-sectional studies, examined the relationship between PIU and mental health among older teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using a threshold of 21 points to identify PIU (89), we found consistently high prevalence rates across the three-year period: 27.4, 27.4, and 24.5%, respectively. These findings suggest persistent PIU concerns among older teachers, though it’s important to note these rates come from different participant cohorts.

Comparing our findings with other studies on PIU during the pandemic reveals both similarities and differences. Our results align with Zhao et al. (16), who reported a PIU prevalence of 28.4% among Chinese university students. Mohler-Kuo et al. (17) found a slightly lower prevalence of 21.3% among Swiss young adults. However, two Hungarian studies (35, 36) reported significantly lower PIU prevalence rates, below 6%. These variations highlight the importance of context-specific analyses in understanding PIU patterns during the pandemic.

The cultural context of our study may also play a role in the prevalence of PIU. In Asian countries, cultural norms might limit opportunities for free interaction and self-expression (93), leading to increased reliance on mobile devices. This cultural backdrop could explain the high PIU prevalence observed in our study, as individuals may have used the internet to cope with pandemic-induced stress and isolation, particularly among older adults. This insight underscores the importance of considering cultural factors when examining internet usage behaviors during crises.

The compensatory internet use theory (6) offers a valuable perspective for understanding the connection between fear of COVID-19 and PIU. It suggests that individuals may turn to the internet as a way to fulfill psychological needs that are not being met in their offline lives. Consequently, the stress and isolation exacerbated by the pandemic could potentially drive individuals to seek solace in internet engagement as a means to mitigate their fears regarding COVID-19.

Furthermore, our study consistently demonstrated the significant relationship between PIU and psychological distress among older teachers, even after controlling for gender and age. These results align with previous research that has established the negative impact of PIU on mental health (22–27), including anxiety, depression and suicidal thoughts. The Resource Model of Self-Control (66) provides a theoretical framework to understand this relationship, suggesting that PIU depletes individuals’ limited self-control resources, leading to ego depletion and ultimately resulting in psychological distress (73).

Building upon the direct effect of PIU on psychological distress, this study also revealed the mediating roles of PNT and occupational burnout in the relationship between PIU and psychological distress. These findings are consistent with self-determination theory (69) and previous research on the relationship between PIU and burnout (53) and the association between burnout and psychological distress (76, 77). The thwarting of basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness in online teaching, as well as the experience of occupational burnout during the transition back to offline teaching, serve as important mechanisms through which PIU contributes to psychological distress among older teachers.

Notably, despite different participants, the impact coefficient of PIU on the psychological distress of older teachers generally showed a stable trend, with β values ranging from 0.220 (Study 1), 0.251 (Study 2), to 0.245 (Study 3). This demonstrated that the harm caused by PIU to the mental health of this population remained consistent, suggesting that for older teachers, the adverse impact of PIU on psychological distress is persistent, and should draw the attention of relevant educational departments.

Our findings suggest a complex interplay of factors associated with PNT and occupational burnout among educators during different phases of the pandemic. Beyond our primary variables of interest, research indicates several other important factors in understanding teacher wellbeing. Bartholomew et al.’s study (94) showed associations between job pressure and the thwarting of autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs among physical education teachers. Chen et al. (95) found correlations between teachers’ perceived instructional leadership and burnout levels. School environment has also been linked to teacher burnout patterns (96). These findings indicate that the relationships between PIU, PNT, and burnout exist within a broader context of organizational and environmental factors. Understanding these multifaceted relationships could be particularly relevant when examining teachers’ experiences across different pandemic phases—from initial adjustment to online teaching through the return to in-person instruction. Future research would benefit from examining this broader range of variables to provide a more comprehensive understanding of teachers’ psychological wellbeing during periods of educational transition.

The findings of this study have important implications for the wellbeing of older teachers in China and beyond. Given the significant impact of PIU on psychological distress, it is crucial to develop and implement targeted interventions to promote healthy smartphone use and mitigate the negative effects of PSU on mental health. These interventions should not only focus on reducing excessive smartphone use but also address the underlying psychological factors that contribute to psychological distress, such as the thwarting of basic psychological needs and the experience of occupational burnout. Additionally, interventions should be sensitive to the cultural context in which they are implemented, taking into account the unique challenges and pressures faced by teachers in different settings.

In light of these considerations, we propose the following strategic directions. Firstly, educational institutions and policymakers should consider integrating digital literacy and mental health education into professional development programs for teachers. This would equip them with the skills to navigate the digital landscape responsibly and maintain a healthy balance between professional and personal smartphone use. Secondly, there is a need for the establishment of support systems within schools and educational communities, such as counseling services and peer support groups, to address the psychological distress experienced by teachers. These systems should be designed to identify and mitigate the factors contributing to occupational burnout and the thwarting of psychological needs. Lastly, policymakers should advocate for research-informed policies that promote a healthy work-life balance for educators, including guidelines on reasonable working hours and the responsible use of digital technologies in educational settings.

This study offers several notable methodological contributions. The repeated cross-sectional design captured data across three distinct phases of the COVID-19 pandemic, providing snapshots of PIU and psychological wellbeing among older teachers over time. The geographically diverse sample from various regions in China allowed for examination of PIU patterns across different educational contexts. Additionally, the use of validated measurement instruments with demonstrated reliability, combined with substantial sample sizes at each time point, strengthens confidence in the observed relationships between PIU, psychological need thwarting, occupational burnout, and psychological distress.

Despite these strengths, the study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, despite employing a repeated cross-sectional survey methodology, the absence of a longitudinal design constrains our capacity to delve into the developmental trajectories of the PIU prevalence and its psychological distress implications. Additionally, the cross-sectional nature of our research precludes the drawing of causal inferences, thus necessitating a cautious consideration of the potential for reverse causality. To address these limitations and to elucidate the causal pathways, future research should adopt a longitudinal design. This approach would facilitate a more profound understanding of the relationship between PIU and mental health of older teachers, allowing for a clearer delineation of the direction and strength of the relationships under investigation. Second, while the sample includes teachers from various regions in China, it may not be fully representative of the entire population of older teachers nationwide. The convenience sampling approach, facilitated by the cooperation of local Education Bureaus, was utilized to recruit participants, which could potentially limit the generalizability of our findings. Future studies should recruit larger and more diverse samples from a wider range of regions to enhance the generalizability of the findings and further explore potential regional differences. Third, the study relies on self-report measures, which may be subject to response biases such as social desirability or recall bias. Participants may have underreported their levels of PSU or psychological distress due to social stigma or a lack of awareness of their own behaviors and experiences.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The research was supported by Shanghai Open University Academic Team Cultivation Project “Research Team on the Continuous Development of TPACK for Open University Teachers” (2024TD004).

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors without undue reservation.

The studies involving humans were approved by the Jiangxi Psychological Consultant Association (IRB ref: JXSXL-2020-J013). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation was not required from the participants because the Jiangxi and Sichuan Education Bureaus assisted in data collection by inquiring about teachers’ willingness to participate. Particpation in this survey acted as consent, and the survey was completed via a hyperlink or QR code.

X-MC: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft. L-FW: Data curation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. X-LL: Investigation, Writing – review & editing. SW: Data curation, Validation, Writing – review & editing. LY: Investigation, Validation, Writing – review & editing. I-HC: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1442852/full#supplementary-material↗