Vertebrate responses to microplastics, nanoplastics, and combined pollutants: accumulation, toxicity, behavior, body functions, and molecular changes

Microplastics and nanoplastics can accumulate in various organs, including the brain, and may alter behavior and induce toxic effects.

• Microplastics and nanoplastics have been shown to pass through biological barriers in vertebrate models.
• Accumulation of these particles can lead to oxidative stress and inflammatory responses.
• There is concern about potential transgenerational harm, affecting offspring not directly exposed to microplastics and nanoplastics.
• The hydrophobic nature of these particles allows them to absorb and concentrate environmental pollutants, potentially increasing toxicity.
• Recent studies highlight the complex interactions between microplastics, nanoplastics, and other co-contaminants in both laboratory and real-world settings.
• Future research is needed to explore the long-term effects of chronic exposure and the specific hazards associated with different sizes and types of these particles.

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