encompasses both experimental and standard-of-care therapies that leverage the immune system for tumor suppression.
Established treatments like (ICIs) are widely used in clinical settings for cancer treatment.
Key components of anticancer immunity include activating dendritic cells, priming T cells, and maintaining immune surveillance.
Challenges such as immune evasion mechanisms hinder the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapy.
Combination therapies that integrate immunotherapy with radiotherapy or chemotherapy may produce synergistic effects but require careful management to minimize side effects.
Emerging factors like tumor heterogeneity and gut microbiota composition could influence the outcomes of immunotherapy.
Ongoing research is addressing issues of immunotherapy-related toxicity and limited efficacy in solid tumors to improve treatment accessibility.
Simplified
, encompassing both experimental and standard-of-care therapies, has emerged as a promising approach to harnessing the immune system for tumor suppression. Experimental strategies, including novel immunotherapies and preclinical models, are actively being explored, while established treatments, such as (ICIs), are widely implemented in clinical settings. This comprehensive review examines the historical evolution, underlying mechanisms, and diverse strategies of cancer immunotherapy, highlighting both its clinical applications and ongoing preclinical advancements. The review delves into the essential components of anticancer immunity, including dendritic cell activation, T cell priming, and immune surveillance, while addressing the challenges posed by immune evasion mechanisms. Key immunotherapeutic strategies, such as cancer vaccines, oncolytic viruses, adoptive cell transfer, and ICIs, are discussed in detail. Additionally, the role of nanotechnology, cytokines, chemokines, and adjuvants in enhancing the precision and efficacy of immunotherapies were explored. Combination therapies, particularly those integrating immunotherapy with radiotherapy or chemotherapy, exhibit synergistic potential but necessitate careful management to reduce side effects. Emerging factors influencing immunotherapy outcomes, including tumor heterogeneity, gut microbiota composition, and genomic and epigenetic modifications, are also examined. Furthermore, the molecular mechanisms underlying immune evasion and therapeutic resistance are analyzed, with a focus on the contributions of noncoding RNAs and epigenetic alterations, along with innovative intervention strategies. This review emphasizes recent preclinical and clinical advancements, with particular attention to biomarker-driven approaches aimed at optimizing patient prognosis. Challenges such as immunotherapy-related toxicity, limited efficacy in solid tumors, and production constraints are highlighted as critical areas for future research. Advancements in personalized therapies and novel delivery systems are proposed as avenues to enhance treatment effectiveness and accessibility. By incorporating insights from multiple disciplines, this review aims to deepen the understanding and application of cancer immunotherapy, ultimately fostering more effective and widely accessible therapeutic solutions.
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Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.
