Mechanisms Regulating Melatonin Synthesis in the Mammalian Pineal Organ

Jan 10, 2006Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

How melatonin production is controlled in the mammal's pineal gland

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Abstract

Melatonin production follows a day/night rhythm influenced by various regulatory mechanisms.

Melatonin levels are regulated by norepinephrine, which is released at night from sympathetic nerve fibers.
Norepinephrine increases intracellular cAMP, activating protein kinase A, which is crucial for melatonin biosynthesis.
In ungulates and primates, AANAT protein is synthesized continuously but is degraded during the day without norepinephrine stimulation.
At night, elevated cAMP leads to phosphorylation of AANAT, protecting it from degradation and increasing enzyme activity.
In rodents, activation of the Aanat gene through protein kinase A-dependent phosphorylation of a transcription factor drives melatonin production.
The regulatory diversity in melatonin synthesis reflects evolutionary adaptations in pineal gland function.

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The day/night rhythm in melatonin production is a characteristic feature in vertebrate physiology. This hormonal signal reliably reflects the environmental light conditions and is independent of behavioral aspects. In all mammalian species, melatonin production is regulated by norepinephrine, which is released from sympathetic nerve fibers exclusively at night. Norepinephrine elevates the intracellular cAMP concentration via beta-adrenergic receptors and activates the cAMP-dependent protein kinase A. This pathway is crucial for regulation of the penultimate enzyme in melatonin biosynthesis, the arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT); cAMP/protein kinase A may, however, act in different ways. In ungulates and primates, pinealocytes constantly synthesize AANAT protein from continually available Aanat mRNA. During the day-in the absence of noradrenergic stimulation-the protein is immediately destroyed by proteasomal proteolysis. At nighttime, elevated cAMP levels cause phosphorylation of AANAT by protein kinase A. This posttranslational modification leads to interaction of phosphorylated AANAT with regulatory 14-3-3 proteins, which protect AANAT from degradation. Increases in AANAT protein are paralleled by increases in enzyme activity. Stimulation of the cAMP/protein kinase A pathway may also activate pineal gene expression. In rodents, transcriptional activation of the Aanat gene is the primary mechanism for the induction of melatonin biosynthesis and results in marked day/night fluctuations in Aanat mRNA. It involves protein kinase A-dependent phosphorylation of the transcription factor cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and binding of phosphorylated CREB in the promoter region of the Aanat gene. In conclusion, a common neuroendocrine principle, the nocturnal rise in melatonin, is controlled by strikingly diverse regulatory mechanisms. This diversity has emerged in the course of evolution and reflects the high adaptive plasticity of the melatonin-generating pineal organ.

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Mechanisms Regulating Melatonin Synthesis in the Mammalian Pineal Organ

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