is associated with increased risk in women aged 20 to 60.
Higher evening energy intake is linked to a greater risk of metabolic syndrome compared to lower evening intake.
A decrease in the number of is associated with reduced metabolic syndrome risk.
Evening energy intake is connected to elevated fasting blood glucose levels.
Evening protein intake is associated with a significant decrease in triglyceride levels.
No significant associations were observed when stratifying by age, menopausal status, and diurnal preference.
Simplified
Late energy intake (EI) is linked to increased obesity; however, the relationship between circadian eating patterns-including timing (morning vs. evening) energy and macronutrients, eating frequency, and eating window duration-and (MetS) in Iranian women remains insufficiently elucidated, particularly across age groups, menopausal statuses, and diurnal preference. In this cross-sectional study, dietary intake of 574 women aged 20 to 60 years from Tehran was assessed using three 24-hour dietary recalls. diurnal preference was evaluated through the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire. The analysis focused on eveningness in EI and macronutrient intake (%evening - %morning), (EOs), and eating window duration. Anthropometric measurements, blood pressure, glucose, and lipid levels, were recorded. Generalized linear regression was utilized. Eveningness of EI was related to increased MetS risk T (tertile) 3 vs.T1 (ORs (95% CIs); 0.35 (0.11-0.62), p = 0.03). Also, the number of EOs T3 vs.T1 ( -0.68 (-1.32 - -0.23), p = 0.02) was related to decreased MetS. Eveningness of EI was linked to risk of elevated fasting blood glucose, T3 vs. T1 (0.46 (0.09-0.91), p = 0.02), Additionally, T3 vs. T1 in the Eveningness of protein showed a significant decrease in TG, (-0.56 (-1.01 - -0.12); p = 0.01). No associations were found in stratified by age, menopausal status, and chronotype. Consuming fewer meals along with a higher evening energy-might from non-protein sources-might be associated with increased the risk of MetS cross-sectionally, emphasizing the need for longitudinal studies to deepen our understanding of these relationships.
Key numbers
0.35
Increased Risk
Odds ratio comparing highest tertile of vs. lowest tertile.
-0.68
Decrease in Triglycerides
Mean difference in triglycerides comparing highest vs. lowest tertile of .
185 of 574
Participants with
Total number of participants identified with .
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Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests. Ethics approval and consent to participate: This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Islamic Azad University, Tehran Medical Sciences—Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences Faculty (IR.IAU.REC.1403.487). Also, written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Consent for publication: All authors have reviewed and approved the final version of this manuscript and consent to its publication.
